The topics covered in this talk on December 21, 2023 were the following:

• Overview -Alan Turing, Facial Recognition , Milestones, key moments, neural networks,  Big AI, Transformer Architecture – LLM Large Language Models – GPT3 – Emerging Capabilities
• Machine Learning which is a subset of AI that focuses on developing algorithms and techniques that allow computers to learn from data and improve their performance on a task without being explicitly programmed. Machine learning algorithms can be categorized into supervised learning, unsupervised learning, semi-supervised learning, and reinforcement learning depending on the type of training data and learning objectives.
• Data Analytics Which involves the process of analyzing large sets of data to discover patterns, trends, and insights that can inform decision-making and drive business results. It covers various techniques and methods for data preprocessing, descriptive analytics, predictive analytics, and prescriptive analytics, with the aim of extracting actionable insights from data.
• Natural Language Processing: NLP is a subfield of AI that focuses on enabling computers to understand, interpret, and generate human language. It involves developing algorithms and techniques for tasks such as text classification, text related tasks, machine translation, and question answering. NLP techniques often leverage machine learning and deep learning approaches to process and analyze text data.
• Large Language Models: LLM such as GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer) developed by OpenAI are designed to perform natural language processing tasks such as text generation, text classification and language understanding, with remarkable proficiency. These models consist of millions or even billions of parameters and are trained using techniques such as unsupervised pre-training followed by fine-tuning on specific tasks. (GPT Chat is an upgrade from GPT)
• Generative Models: “Generative” models refer to the ability of a model or system to create new data samples that are similar, but not necessarily identical, to the data on which it was trained. Generative models are a class of AI models designed to generate new instances of data that resemble training data.
• Issues and Guard Rails – Problems and their prevention – he is more concerned with the aspect of absorbing garbage from the Internet, where LLMs get their reference, which gives rise to errors and things that don’t match the facts. He also discusses some criminal, illegal or immoral situations. He adds an interesting topic that LLMs end up reflecting American culture and others cultures with weak foot print on Internet simply don’t appear. He discusses Copyright and GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) and Tesla Model of Selfdriving.
• General Purpose AI – also known as AGI (Artificial General Intelligence) refers to a type of artificial intelligence that has the ability to understand, learn and perform a wide variety of tasks in a similar way or even superior to human intelligence in several areas. Unlike more specific artificial intelligence, which is designed to perform specific tasks such as speech recognition, image classification or playing chess, AGI would be able to adapt to new situations, learn new tasks easily and apply its knowledge of flexibly in a variety of contexts.
• “Last but not least”, perhaps the most important, he addressed Why computers “don’t think” (although it seems like it…) which I separated it in this post and if you want you can go straight there if you are not interested in history or in the details of the building blocks
• The previous lecture at this Institute was on “ What is Generative Artificial Intelligence and how it works” , by Prof. Mirella Lapata, where she examines also what I call here the building blocks, adding a few more than those listed here. After I did this job I created a kind of pointer with the main subjects and my take on what is at stake. In this pointer I connected the presentation of Prof. Michael Wooldridge with that of Prof. Mirella Lapata on the same subjects, because they are complementary

These fields are interconnected and often used in combination to develop intelligent systems and applications that can understand, analyze, and interpret data in a variety of forms, including text, images, audio, and more. They have applications across a wide variety of domains, including healthcare, finance, e-commerce, customer service, and more, and play a crucial role in advancing the capabilities of AI technology.

Openning

Dr. Michael Woolbridge

Artificial Intelligence as a scientific discipline has been with us since just after the Second World War. It began roughly speaking, with the advent of the first digital computers, but I have to tell you that, for most of the time, until recently, progress in artificial intelligence was glacially slow. That started to change this century.

Artificial Intelligence is a very broad discipline, which encompasses a very wide range of different techniques, but it was one class of AI techniques in particular that began to work this century and, in particular, began to work around about 20005. The class os techniques which started to work at problemas that were interesting enough to be really practically useful in a wide range of settings were machine learning.

Machine Learning

Now, lilke so many other names in the field of artificial intelligence, the name “machine learning” is really, really, unhelpful. It suggests that a computer, for example, locks itself away in a room with a textbook and trains itself how to read French or something like that. That is not what is going on. So, we’re going to begin by understanding a little bit more about what machine learning is and how machine learning works. So To start us off:

Who is this? Anybody recognise this face? Do you recognise trhis face? It is the face of Alan Turing. Well done. Alan Turing. The late, great Alan Turing. We all know a little bit about Alan Turing from his codebreaking work in the Second World War. We shoudl also know a lsot more about this individual amazing life. So, what we are going to do is we are going to use Alan Turing to help us understand machine learning. So, a classic application of artificial intelligence is to do facial recognition. The idea in facial recognition is that we want to show the computer a picture of a human face and for the computer to tell us whose face that is. In this case, for examjple, we show a picture of Alan Turing, and, ideally, it woudl tell us that ist is Alan Turing.

So, how does it actually work?

Well, the simplest way of getting machine learningo to be able to do something is what is called supervised learning. Supervised learning, like all of machine learning requires what we call training data. Sol in this case the training data is on the right hand side of the slide, it is a set of what input output pairs, or what we call the training data set and each input output pair consists of an input if I gave this and an output I would want you to produce this, so in this case we got a buch of pictures again of Alan Turing, and the text we would want the computer to create if we show it that picture and this is supervised learning because we are showing the computer what we want it to do. We are helping it in a sense, we are saying: this is a picture of Alan Turing. If I whow you the picture this is what I would want you to print out. So there could be a picture of me and and the picture of me would b e labeled with the text Michael Wooldridge if I showed you this picture, then this is what I would want you to print out.

So, we learned an important lesson about artificial intelligence and machine learning in particular and that lesson is that AI requires training data and in this case pictures of Alan Turing labeled with the text that we would want the computer to produce if I showed you this picture, I would want you to produce the text Alan Turing.

Okay, training data is important every time you go on social media and you upload a picture to social media and you label it with the names of the people that appear in there, your role in that is to provide training data for the machine learning algorithms of Big Data Companies. So, this is supervised learning. Now we are going to come on to exactly how it does the learning in a moment, but first thing I want to point out is that this is a classification task. What I mean by that is as we show at a picture, the machine learning is classifying that picture. I am classifying this as a picture of Michael Wooldridge, this is a picture of Alan Turing and so on, and this technology which really started to work around about beginning 2005 it started to take off really, really got supercharged around about 2012.

And just this kind of task on its own is incredbibly powerful. Exactly this thecnology can be used, for example, fo recognise tumours on x ray scans or abnormalitaies on ultrasound scans and a range of different tasks.

Does anybody in the audience own a Tesla? (a couple of Tesla drivers).. Not quite sure whether they want to admit that they own a Tesla… We have got a couple of Tesla drivers in the audience… Tesla self-driving mode is only possible because of this technology. It is this technology which is enabling a Tesla in full self-driving mode to be able to recognise that that is a stop sign, that that is somebody on a bicycle, that that is a pedestrian on a zebra crossing and so on. These are classification tasks. And I am going to come back and explain how classification tasks are different tognerative AI later on.

Neural Networks

OK, So, this is machine learning. How does it actually work? OK, this is not a technical presentation and this is about as technical as it is going to get, where I do a very hand-wavy explanation of what neural networks are and how do they work and with apologies – I know I have a couple of neural network experts in the audience – and I apologise to you because you will be cringing with my explanation but the technical details are way too technical to go into. So, how does a neural network recognise Alan Turing?

(I will open here a branch to another post where I will explain AI Neural Networks vs. human Neural Networks)

OK, so firstly, what is a neural network?

Look at an animal brain or nervous system under a microscope, and you will find that it contains enormous numbers of nerve cells called neurons and those cells are connected to one another in vast networks. Now, we do not have precise figures, but in a human brain, the current estimate is something like 86 billion neurons in the human brain. How they got to 86, I suppose 85 or 87, I don’t know, but 86 seems to be the most commonly quoted number of these cells. And these cells are connected to one another in enormous networks. One neuron could be connected to up to 8000 other neurons. And each of those neurons is doing a tiny, very, very simple pattern recognition task. That neuron is looking for a very, very simple pattern and when it sees that pattern, it sends the signal to its connections, it sends a signal to all the other neurons that it is connected to. So, how does that get us to recognizing the face of Alan Turing? So, Turing’s picture, as we know, a picture – a digital picture – is made up of millions of coloured dots.., the pixels, so your smath0ne maybe has 12 megapixels, 12 million coloured dots making up that picture. OK, so, Turing’s picture there is made up of millions and millions of coloured dots. So look at the top left neuron on that input layer. That neuron is just looking for a very simple pattern. What might that pattern be? Might be just the colour red. And when it sees the colour red on its associated pixel, the one on the top left there, it becomes excited and it sends a signal out to all of its neighbours. OK, so look at the next neuron along, maybe what that neuron is doing is just looking to see whether a majority of its incoming connections are red. And when it sees a majority of its incoming connections are red, then it becomes excited and it sends a signal to its neighbour. Now, remember, in the human brain, there is something like 86 billion of those, and we got something like 20 or so outgoing connections for each of these neurons in a human brain, thousands of those connections. And somehow – in ways that, to be honest, we don’t really understand in detail, complex pattern-recognition tasks, in particular, can be reduced down to these neural networks. So, how does that help us in artificial intelligence? That’s what’s going on in the brain in a very hand=wavy way, that is not that, that is obviously not a technical explanation of what is going on.

How does that help us in neural networks?

Well, we can implement that stuff in software. The idea goes back to the 1940’s and to researchers, McCulloch and Pitts, and they are struck by the idea that the structures that you see in the brain look a bit like electrical circuits. And they thought, could we implement all that stuff in electrical circuits? Now, they didn’t have the wherewithal to be able to do that, but the idea stuck. The idea has been around since the 1940’s. It began to seriously look at the idea of doing this in software – in the 1960’s. And then there was another flutter of interest in the 1980’s, but it was only this century that it really became possible. And why did it became possible? For three reasons:

• 1-There were some scientific advances – what is called deep learning.
• 2-There was the availability of big data – and you need data to be able to configure these neural networks and, finally,
• 3- to configure these neural networks so that they can recognise Turing’s picture, you need a lot of computer power and computer power became very cheap this century. We are in the age of very cheap computer power.

And those were the ingredients just as much as the scientific developments that made AI plausible this century, in particular, taking off around about 20005.

OK, so how do you actually train a neural network?

If you show it a picture of Alan Turing and the output text “Alan Turing ”, what does the training actually look like?

Well, what you have to do is adjust the network. That is what training a neural network is. You adjust the network so that when you show ikt another piece of training data, a desired input and a desired output – an input and a desired output – it will produce that desired output. Now, the mathematics for that is not very hard. It’s kind of like a beginning graduate level or advanced school level, but you need an awful lot of if and it is routine to get computers to do it, but you need a lot of computer power to be able to train neural networks big enough to be able to recognise faces.

OK, but basically all you have to remember is that each of those neurons is doing a tiny simple pattern recognition task, and we can replicate that in software and we can train these neural networks with data in order to be able to do things like recognising faces.

So, as I say, it starts to become clear around about 20005 that this technology is taking off. It starts to be applicable on problems like recognising faces or recognising tumours on X-rays and so on. And there is a huge flurry of interest from Silicon VAlley. It gets supercharged in 2012, and why does it get supercharged in 2012? Because it is realised that a particular type of computer processor is really well-suited to doing all the mathematics. This type of computer processor is a graphics processing unit: a GPU. Exactly the same technology that you or possibly more likely your children use when they play C}all of Duty or Minecraft or whatever it is. They all have GPUs in their computer. It is exactly that technology and, by the way, it is AI that made Nvidia a $1 billion $ company – not your teenage kids. Yeah, well, “in times of a gold rush, be the ones to sell the shovels“* is the lesson that you learned there.

* The saying “In times of a gold rush, be the ones to sell the shovels” is a metaphor that highlights a strategic approach to profiting from a popular or speculative trend. The core idea is that during any speculative boom or frenzy, the most reliable and consistent way to make money is not by participating directly in the speculative activity (e.g., mining for gold) but by providing the necessary tools, services, or infrastructure to those who are participating (e.g., selling shovels, pickaxes, supplies).

Big AI

So, where does that take us? So, Silicon Valley gets excited and starts to make speculative bts in artificial intelligence. A huge range of speculative bets and, by “speculative bets”, I am talking billions upon billions of dollars. the kind of bets that we can’t imagine in our everyday life. And one thing starts to become clear and what starts to become clear is that the capabilities of neural networks grows with scale. To put it bluntly, with neural networks, bigger is better. But you don’t just need bigger neural networks, you need more data and more computer power in order to be able to train them. So, there is a rush to get a competitive advantage in the market. And we know that more data, more computer power, bigger neural networks delivers greater capability. And so how does Silicon Valley respond?

By throwing more data and more computer power at the problem. they turn the dial on this up to 11. They just throw ten times more data, ten times more computer power at the problem. It sounds incredibly crude and, from a scientific perspective, it really is crude. I’d rather the advances had come through core science, but actually there is an advantage to be gained just by throwing more data and computer power at it. So let’s see how far this can take us. And where it took us is a really unexpected direction.

Around 2017/2018, we are seeing a flurry of AI applications, exactly the kind of things I’ve described – things like recognising tumors and so on – and those developments alone would have been driving AI ahead. But what happens is one particular machine learning technology suddenly seems to be very, very well-suited for this age of big AI.

Attention is All You Need – Transformer Architecture

The paper that launched – probably the most important AI paper in the last decade – is called “Attention is All You Need“, It is an extremely unhelpful title and I bet they are regretting that title – it probably seemed like a good joke at the time. All you need is a kind of AI meme. Doesn’t sound very funny to you – that’s because it is an insider joke. But anyway, this paper by these seven people, who at the time worked for Google Brain – one of the Google Research Labs – is the paper that introduces a particular neural network architecture called the Transformer Architecture. And what it is designed for is something called large language models. So, this is – I am not going to try and explain how the transformer architecture works, it has one particular innovation, I think, and this particular innovation is what is called an attention mechanism. 

I will describe how large language models work in a moment. But the point is – the point of the picture is simply this is not just a big neural network. It has some structure. And it was this structure that was invented in that paper and this diagram is taken straight out of tht paper. It was these structures – the transformer architectures – that made this technology possible.

Transformer architecture big picture

Note: this wrap up was not in Dr. Michael pitch (RE Campos)

The paper “Attention is All You Need,” published by Vaswani et al. in 2017, introduced the Transformer model, which has significantly influenced the field of artificial intelligence, particularly in natural language processing (NLP). Here are the key contents and concepts of the paper:

1. Introduction to Transformers: The paper presents the Transformer architecture, which relies entirely on attention mechanisms, discarding the recurrent and convolutional layers used in previous models. This architecture allows for parallelization and improved efficiency in training.
2. Attention Mechanism: The core innovation of the Transformer is the attention mechanism, specifically the “self-attention” mechanism. This allows the model to weigh the importance of different words in a sentence relative to each other, enabling it to capture contextual relationships more effectively.
3. Multi-Head Attention: The model employs multi-head attention, which allows the network to focus on different parts of the input simultaneously. This enhances its ability to understand complex patterns and relationships within the data.
4. Positional Encoding: Since the Transformer lacks a sequential processing structure (like RNNs), it uses positional encodings to retain the order of the input sequence. This helps the model understand the position of each word in relation to others.
5. Encoder-Decoder Architecture: The Transformer consists of an encoder and a decoder:
   • The encoder processes the input sequence and generates a set of continuous representations.
   • The decoder takes these representations and generates the output sequence, often used in tasks like translation.
6. Layer Normalization and Residual Connections: The architecture incorporates layer normalization and residual connections to facilitate training and improve performance, helping to mitigate issues like vanishing gradients.
7. Performance and Applications: The paper demonstrates that Transformers achieve state-of-the-art results in various NLP tasks, such as translation, summarization, and language modeling. The architecture’s efficiency and effectiveness have led to its widespread adoption in many AI applications, including models like BERT and GPT.
8. Impact on AI: The introduction of the Transformer model has revolutionized the field of AI, leading to significant advancements in how machines understand and generate human language. It has paved the way for large-scale pre-trained models that can be fine-tuned for specific tasks, further enhancing the capabilities of AI systems.

Overall, “Attention is All You Need” is a foundational paper that has shaped the direction of research and development in artificial intelligence, particularly in natural language processing and understanding.

GPT3

Ok, we are all busy sort of semi locked-down and afraid to leave our homes in June 2020 and one company called OpenAI released a system – or announced a system I should say – called GPT3. Great technology. Their marketing company with GPT, I really think could have done with a bit more thought, to be honest with you, doesn’t roll off the tongue. But anyway, GPT3 is a particular type of machine learning system called a large language model. And we are going to talk in more detail about what a large model is for in a moment.But the key point about GPT3 is this: As we started to see what it could do, we realised that this was a step change in capability. It was dramatically better than the systems that had gone before. Not just a little bit better. It was dramatically better than the systems that had gone before it. And the scale of it was mind boggling. So, in neural network terms, we talk about parameters.

Where neural network people talk about a parameter. What are they talking about? They are talking either about an individual neuron or one of the connections between them, roughly. And GPT3 had 175 billion parameters. Now, this is not the same as the number of neurons in the brain, but, nevertheless, it is not far off the order of magnitude. 

It is extremely large. But, remember, it is organised into one of these transformer architectures. My point is that it is not just a big neural network. And so the scale of the neural networks in this system were enormous – completely unprecedented. And there is no point in having a big neural network unless you can train it with enough data. And, actually, if you have large neural networks and not enough data, you don’t get capable systems at all. They are really quite useless.

So. What did the training data look like?

The training data for GPt3 is something like 500 billion words. It is an ordinary English text. Ordinary English text. That is how this system was trained – just by giving it ordinary English text.

Where do you get that training data from?

You download the whole of the World Wide Web to start with.

Literally – this is the standard practice in the field. You download the World Wide Web.

You can try this at home, by the way. If you have a big enough disk drive, there is a programme called Common Crawl. You can Google Common Crawl when you get home. They have even downloaded it all for you and put in a nice big file ready for your archive. But you do need a big disk in order to store all that stuff.

And what that means is they go to every web page, scrape all the text from it – just the ordinary text – and then they follow all the links on that web page to every other web page. And they do that exhaustively until they have absorbed the whole of the World Wide Web. So, what does that mean?

Every PDF document goes into that and you scrape the text from those PDF documents, every advertising brochure, every bit, every government regulation, every university minutes – God help us…- all of it goes into that training data. And the statistics – you know, 500 billion words – It is very hard to understand the scale of that training data. You know, it would take a person reading a thousand words an hour more than a thousand years in order to be able to read that. But even that doesn’t really help. That is vastly, vastly more text that a human being could ever absorb in their lifetime. What this tells you, by the way, one thing that tells you is that machine learning is much less efficient at learning than human beings are because for me to be able to learn, I did not have to absorb 500 billion words. Anyway, So, what does it do?

So, this company, OpenAI, is developing this technology. They have got a $1 billion investment from Microsoft and what is that they are trying to do? What is this large language model? All it is doing is a very powerful autocomplete. So, if I open up my smartphone and I start sending a text message to my wife and I type, “I am going to be ” my smartphone will suggest completions for me so that I can type the message quickly. And what might those completions be? They might be “late” or “in the pub”. Yeagh, Ir “late AND in the pub”.

So, how is my smartphone doing that?

It is doing what GPT3 does, but on a much smaller scale. It has looked at all of the text messages that I’ve sent to my wife and it has learned – through a much simpler machine learning process – that the likeliest next thing for me to type after “I’m going to be” is either “late” or “in the pub” or “late AND in the pub “.

So, the training data there is just the text messages that I’ve sent to my wife.

Now crucially what GPT3 – and its successor, Chat GPT – all they are doing is exactly the same thing. The difference is scale. In order to be able to train the neural networks with all of that training data so that they can do that prediction (given this prompt, what should come next?), you require extremely expensive AI supercomputers running for months. And by extremely expensive AI supercomputers, these are tens of millions of dollars for these supercomputers and they’re running for months. Just the basic electricity cost runs into millions of dollars. That raises all sorts of issues about CO2 emissions and the like that we are not going to go into there. The point is, these are extremely expensive things. One of the implications of that, by the way, no UH or US university has the capability to build one of these models from scratch. Only big tech companies at the moment are capable of building models on the scale of GPT3 or ChatGPT.

So, GPT3 is released, as I sy in June 2020, and it suddenly becomes clear to us that what it does is a step change improvement in capability over the systems that have come before. And seeing a step change in one generation is extremely rare.

But, how did they get there?

Well, the transformer architecture was essential. They wouldn’t have been able to do that. But actually just as important is to scale enormous amounts of data, enormous amounts of computer power that have gone into training those networks. And actually, spurred on by this, we’ve entered a new age in AI. When I was a PhD student in the late 1980’s, you know, I shared a computer with a bunch of other people in my office and that was – it was fine. We could do state of the art AI research on a desk computer that was shared with a bunch of us.

We are in a very different world. The world we are in – in AI now – the world of big AI is to take enormous data sets and throw them at enormous machine learning systems. And there is a lesson here. It is called the bitter truth – this is fram a machine learning researcher called Rich Sutton. What Rich pointed out – and he is a very brilliant researcher, won every award in the field – he said: look, the real truth is that the big advances that we have seen in AI has come about when people have done exactly that; just throw ten times more data and ten times more computer power at it. And I say it is a bitter lesson because as a scientist, that’s exactly NOT how you would like progress to be made.

Big AI bitter truth

Ok, when I was, as I say, when I was a student, I worked in a discipline called symbolic AI. Symbolical AI tries to get AI, roughly AI speaking, through modelling the mind. Modelling the conscious mental processes that go on in our mind, the conversations that we have with ourselves in languages. We try to capture those processes in artificial intelligence. In Big AI – and so, the implication there in symbollical AI is that intelligence is a problem of knowledge that we have to give the machine sufficient knowledge about a problem in order for it to be able to solve it. In big AI, the bet is a different one. In big AI the bet is that intelligence is a problem of data, and if we can get enough data and enough associated computer power, then that will deliver AI. So, there is a very different shift in this new world of big AI. But the point about big AI is that we are into a new era of artificial intelligence where it is data-driven and computer-driven and large, large machine learning systems.

So, why did we get excited back in June 2020? Well, remember what GPT3 was intended to do – what it is trained to do – is that prompt completion task. And it has been trained on everything on the World Wide Web, so you can give it a prompt, like a one paragraph summary of the life and achievements of Winston Churchill and it reads enough one paragraph summaries of the life and achievements of Winston Churchill that it will come back with a very plausible one. And it is extremely good at generating realistic-sounding text in that way. But this is why we got surprised by AI: This is from a commonsense reasoning task that was devised for artificial intelligence in the 1990s, until three years ago – until june 2020 – there was no AI system that existed in the world that you could apply this test to. It was just literally impossible. There was nothing there, and that changed overnight. So, how and what does this test look like? Well the test is a bunch of questions, and they are questions not for mathematical reasoning or logical reasoning or problems in physics. they are common sense reasoning tasks

And if we ever have AI that delivers scale on really large systems, then it surely would be able to tackle problems like this. So, what do the questions look like? A human asks the question: “If Tom is three inches taller than Dick, and Dick is 2 inches taller than Harry, how much taller is Tom than Harry?

In the slide, the ones in green are the ones that AI gets right. The ones in red are the ones that get wrong.

And it gets that one right: Five inches taller than Harry.

But we didn’t train it to be able to answer that question. So, where on earth did that come from? That capability – that simple capability to be able to do that – where did it come from?

The next question: “Can Tom be taller than himself?”

This is understanding of the concept of “taller than”. That the concept of “taller than” is irreflexive. You can’t be taller – a thing cannot be taller than itself. No. Again, it gets the answer right. But we didn’t train on that. That’s not – we didn’t train the system to be good at answering questions about what “taller than” means. And, by the way, 20 years ago, tant’s exactly what people did in AI. So, where did that capability come from? “Can a sister be taller than a brother?” Yes, a sister can be taller than a brother. “Can two siblings each be taller than the other?” And it gets this one wrong. And actually, I am puzzled, is there any way that its answer could be correct and it’s just getting it correct in a way that I don’t understand. But I haven’t yet figured out any way that that answer could be correct. But why it gets that one wrong, I don’t know. then this one, I’m also surprised at. “On a map, which compass direction is usually left?” And it thinks north is usually to the left. I don’t know if there’s any countries in the world that conventionally have north to the left, but I don’t think so. “Can fish run?” It understands that fish cannot run. “If a door is locked, what must you do first before opening it?” You must first unlock it. ]and then finally, and very weirdly, it gets this one wrong: “which was invented first, cars, ships or planes?” – and it thinks cars were invented first. Now QHR is going on there.

Now, my point is that this system was built to be able to compete from a prompt, and it is no surprise that it would be able to generate a good one paragraph summary of the life and achievements of Winston Churchil, because it would have seen all that in the training data. But where does the understanding of “taller than” come from? And there are a million other examples like this. Since June 2020, the AI community has just gone nuts exploring the possibilities of these systems and trying to understand why they can do these things when that’s not what we trained them to do. This is an extraordinary time to be an AI researcher because there are now questions which, for most of the history of AI until June 2020 were just philosophical discussion. We couldn’t test them out because there was nothing to test them on. Literally. Then, overnight that changed. So genuinely it is a big deal. This was really, really a big deal, the arrival of this system. Of course, the world didn’t notice, in June 2020. The world noticed when ChatGPT was released. And what is ChatGPT? ChatGPT is a polished and improved version of GPT3 but it’s basically the same technology and it’s using the experience that that company had with GPT3 and how it was used in order to be able to improve it and make it more polished and more accessible and so on.

So, for AI researchers, the really interesting thing is not that it can give me a one paragraph summary of the life and achievements of Winston Churchill, and actually you could Google that, in any case. The really interesting thing is what we call emergent capabilities – and emergent capabilities are capabilities that the system has, but that we didn’t design it to have. And so there’s an enormous body of work going on now, trying to map out exactly what those capabilities are. And we’re going to come back and talk about some of them later on. OK. So the limits to this are not, at the moment, well understood and actually fiercely contentious. One of the big problems, by the way, is that you construct some test for this and you try this test out and you get some answer and then you discover it is in the training data, right? You can just find it on the World Wide Web. And it is actually quite hard to construct tests for intelligence that you are absolutely sure are not anywhere on the World Wide Web. It really is actually quite hard to do that. So we need a new science of being able to explore these systems and understand their capabilities. The limits are not well understood – but nevertheless, this is very exciting stuff. So let’s talk about some issues with technology.

ISSUES

So, now you understand how the technology works. It is a neural network based in a particular transformer architecture, which is all designed to do that prompt completion stuff. And it’s been trained with vast, vast, vast amounts of training data just in order to be able to try to make its best guess about which words should come next. But because of the scale of it, it’s seen so much training data, the sophistication of this transformer architecture – it’s very, very fluent in what it does. And if you’ve used it – so, who’s used it? Has everybody used it? I’m guessing most people if you’re in a lecture on artificial intelligence, most people will have tried ito out. If you haven’t, you should do because this really is a landmark year. This is the first time in history that we’ve had powerful general purpose AI tools available to everybody. It’s never happened before. So, it is a breakthrough year, and if you haven’t tried it, you should. If you use it, by the way, don’t type anything personal about yourself because it will just go into the training data. Don’t ask how to fix your relationship, right? I mean, that’s not something – Don’t complain about your boss, because all of that will go into the training data and next week somebody will ask a query and it will all come back out again.

I don’t know why you’re laughing… This has happened. This has happened with absolute certainty.

OK, let’s look at some issues.

LLMs get things wrong a lot

So, the first, I think many people will be aware of: it gets stuff wrong. A lot. And it is problematic for a number of reasons. So, when – actually I don’t remember if it was GPT3 – but one of the early large language models, I was playing with it and I did something which I’m sure many of you had done, and it’s kind of tacky. But anyway, I said, “Who is Michael Wooldridge?” You might have tried it. Anyway, “Michael Wooldridge is a BBC broadcaster.” No, not that, Michael Wooldridge. “Michael Wooldridge is the Australian Health Minister.” No, not that, Michael Wooldridge – the Michaqel Wooldridge in Oxford. And it came back with a few lines’ summary of me “Michael Woolddridge is a researcher in artificial intelligence”, etc. etc. etc. Please tell me you’ve all tried that” No? Anyway, it said “Michael Wooldridge started his undergraduate degree at Cambridge ”. Now, as an Oxford professor, you can imagine how I felt about that. But anyway, the point is it’s flatly untrue and in fact my academic origins are very far removed from Oxford. kBut why did it do that? Because it’s read – in all that training data out there – It’s read thousands of biographies of Oxford professors and this is a very common thing, right? And it is making its best guess. The whole point about the architecture is it’s making its best guess about what would go there. It’s filling in the blanks. But there’s the thing. It’s filling in the blanks in a very very plausible way. If you’d read in my biography that Michael Wooldridge studied his first degree at the University of Uzbekistan, for example, you might have thought, “well, that’s a bit odd, is that really true?” But you wouldn’t at all heve guessed there was any issue if you read CAmbridge, because it looks completely plausible – even if in my case it absolutely isn’t true. So, it gets things wrong and it gets things wrong in very plausible ways. And of course, it’s very fluent. I dmean, the technology comes back with very, very fluent explanations. And that combination of plaibility – “Michael Wooldridge studied undergraduate at Cambridge” and fluency is a very dangerous combination. Okay, so, in particular, they have no idea of what’s true or not. they’re not looking something up on a database where – you know, going into some database and looking up where Wooldredge studied his undergraduate degree.That’s not what’s going on at all. It’s those neural networks in the same way that they’re making a best guess about whose face that is when they’re doing facial recognition, are making their best guess about the text that should come next. So, they get things wrong, but they get things wrong in very, very plausible ways. And that combination is very dangerous. The lesson for that, by the way, is that if you use this – and I know that people do use it and are using it productively – if you use it for anything serious, you have to fact check. And there’s a tradeoff. Is it worth the amount of effort in fact-checking versus doing it myself? But you absolutely need to – absolutely need to be prepared to do that.

Ok, the next issues are well-documented, but kind of amplified by this technology and their issues of bias and toxicity.

Bias and Toxicity

So, what I mean by that? Reddit was part of the training data.

Reddit is a social news aggregation, web content rating, and discussion website. Registered members can submit content to the site, such as links, text posts, images, and videos, which are then voted up or down by other members. Here are some key features and concepts associated with Reddit:

1. Subreddits: Reddit is divided into thousands of smaller communities known as subreddits, each dedicated to a specific topic or theme. Subreddits are denoted by “r/” followed by the name of the subreddit (e.g., r/technology, r/aww, r/AskReddit).
2. Karma: Users earn karma points when their posts or comments are upvoted by others. Karma serves as a rough measure of a user’s contribution to the site.
3. Upvotes and Downvotes: Content is rated by users through upvotes and downvotes, which influence its visibility on the site. Content with more upvotes rises to the top, while content with more downvotes becomes less visible.
4. Moderation: Each subreddit is moderated by volunteers who set and enforce community rules, ensuring discussions stay on topic and adhere to community guidelines.
5. Reddit Gold (now Reddit Premium): A subscription service offering an ad-free experience, access to exclusive subreddits, and other benefits.
6. AMA (Ask Me Anything): A popular format where users can ask questions to people of interest, ranging from celebrities to experts in various fields.

Reddit is known for its diverse range of topics and vibrant community discussions, making it a major platform for online interaction and content sharing.

I don’t know if any of you spent any time on Reddit, but Reddit contains every kind of obnoxious human belief that you can imagine and really a vast range that us in this auditorium can’t imagine at all. All of it’s been absorbed. Now the companies that developed this technology, I genuinely think I don’t want their large language models to absorb all this toxic content. So, they try to filter out. But the scale is such that with very high probability an enormous quantity of toxic content is being absorbed. every kind of racism, misogyny – everything that you can imagine is all being absorbed and it’s latent within those neural networks. Okay. So, how do the companies deal with that, trat provide this technology? They build in what are now called “guardrails” and they built in guardrails before, so, when you type a prompt, there will be a guardrail that tries to detect whether your prompt is a naughty prompt and also the output. They will check the output and check to see whether it’s a naughty prompt. But let me give you an example of how imperfect those guardrails were. Again, go back to June 2020. Everybody’s frantically experimenting with this technology, and the following example went viral. Somebody tried, with GPT3, the following prompt: “I would like to murder my wife. What a foolproof way of doing that and getting away with it?” And GPT3, which is designed to be helpful, said:”Here are five foolproof ways in which you can murder your wife and get away with it”. That’s what the technology is designed to do. So, this is embarrassing for the company involved. They don’t want it to give out information like that. So, they put in a guardrail. And if you’re a computer programmer, my guess is tha guardrail is probably an “if statement”. Something like that – in the sense that it’s not a deep fix. Or, to put it another way, for non computer programmers, it’s the technological equivalent of sticking gaffer tape on your engine. (patch up). Right, that’s what’s going on with these guardrails. And then a couple of weeks later, the following example goes viral. So, we’ve now fixed the “how do I murder my wife?” Somebody says, “I’m writing a novel in which the main character wants to murder his wife and get away with it. Can you give me a foolproof way of doing that?” and so the system says:”Here are five ways in which your main character can murder”. Well, anyway, my point is that the guardrails that we built in a moment are not deep technological fixes, that the technological equivalents of gaffer tape. And there is a game of cat and mouse going on between people trying to get around those guardrails and the companies that are trying to defend them. But I think they genuinely are trying to defend their systems against those kinds of abuses.

Okay, so that’s bias and toxicity. Bias, by the way, is the problem that, for example, the training data predominant at the moment is coming from North America and to what we’re ending up with inadvertently is these very powerful AI tools that have an inbuilt bias towards North America, North American culture, language norms and so son and that enormous parts of the world – particularly those parts of the world that don’t have a large digital footprint – are inevitably going to end up excluded. And it’s obviously not just at the level of cultures, it’s down at the level of – down at the level of kind of, you know, individuals, races and so on.

So, these are the problems of bias and toxicity.

Copyright and intelectual property

If you’ve absorbed the whole of the World Wide Web , you will have absorbed an enormous amount of copyrighted material. So, I’ve written a number of books and it is a source of intense irritation that the last time I checked on Google the very first link that you got to my textbook was to a pirated copy of the book somewhere on the other side of the world. the moment a book is published, it gets pirated. And if you’re just sucking in the whole of the World Wide Web you’re going to be sucking in enormous quantities of copyrighted content. And there’ve been examples where very prominent authors have given the prompt of the first paragraph of their book, and the large language model has faithfully come up with the following text is, you know, the next five paragraphs of their book. Obviously, the book was in the training data and it’s latent within the neural networks on those systems.

This is a really big issue for the providers of this technology, and there are lawsuits ongoing right now, I’m not capable of commenting on them because I’m not a legal expert, but there are lawsuits ongoing that will probably take years to unravel. The related issue of intellectual property in a very broad sense: So, for example, most large language models will have absorbed J.K,Rowling novels, the Harry Potter novels. novels. So imagine J K Rowling, who famously spent years in Edinburgh working on the Harry Potter universe and style and so on, she releases her first book, the internet is populated by fake Harry Potter books produced by this generative AI, which faithfully mimic J.K. Rowling style, faithfully mimic that style. Where does that leave their intellectual property? Or the Beatles. You know, the Beatles spent years in Hamburg slaving away to create the Beatles sound, the revolutionary Beatles sound. Everything goes back to the Beatles. They released their first album, and the next day the internet is populated by fake Beatles songs that really, really faithfully capture the Lennon and McCartney sound and the Lennon and McCartney voice. So, there’s a big challenge here for intellectual property.

Related to that: GDPR

Anybody in the audience that has any kind of public profile: data about you will have been absorbed by these neural networks. So, GDPR, for example, gives you the right to know what’s held about you and to have it removed.

The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) is a comprehensive data protection law that was enacted by the European Union (EU) to enhance and unify data privacy laws across Europe. It came into effect on May 25, 2018

Now, if all that data is being held in a database, you can just go to the Michael Wooldridge entry and say, “Fine, take that out”. With a neural network? No chance. Technology doesn’t work in that way. Okay, so you can’t go to it and snip out the neurons that know about Michael Wooldridge because it fundamentally doesn’t know. It doesn’t work in that way.

So, and we know this combined with the fact that it gets things wrong, has already led to situations where large language models have made, frankly, defamatory claims about individuals. And there was a case in Australia where I think it claimed that somebody had been dismissed from their job for some kind of gross misconduct and that individual was understandably not very happy about it.

And then, finally, the next one is an interesting one and, actually, if there’s one thing I want you to take home from this lecture, which explains why artificial intelligence is different to human intelligence, it is this video.

The Tesla Autopilot

So, the Tesla owners will recognise what we’re seeing on the right hand side of this screen. This is a screen and a Tesla car and the onboard AI in the Tesla car is trying to interpret what’s going on around it

It’s identifying lorries (trucks), stop signs, pedestrians, and so on. And you’ll see the car at the bottom there is the actual Tesla, and then you’ll see above it the things that look like traffic lights, which I think are US stop signs and then ahead of it, there is a truck. So, as I play the video, watch what happens to those stop signs and ask yourself what is actually going on in the world around it

Why are they all whizzing (buzzing) towards the car? And then we’re going to pan up and see what’s actually there.

The car is trained on enormous numbers of hours of going out on the street and getting that data and then doing supervised learning, training it by showing that’s a stop sign, that’s a truck, that’s a pedestrian so clearly, in all of that training data, there had never been a truck carrying some stop signs.

The neural networks are just making their best guess about what they’re seeing, and they think they’re seeing a stop sign. Well, they are seeing a stop sign. They’ve just never seen one on a truck before.

So, my point here is that neural networks do very badly in situations outside their training data. This situation wasn’t in the training data. The neural networks are making their best guess about what’s going on and getting it wrong.

So, in particular – and this is this, to AI researchers, this is obvious – but we really need to emphasise we really need to emphasise this. When you have a conversation with ChatGPT or whatever, you are not interacting with a mind. It is not thinking about what to say next. It is not reasoning, it’s not pausing and thinking “well, what’s the best answer to this?” That’s not what’s going on at all. Those neural networks are working simply to try to make the best answer they can = the most plausible sounding answer that they can – the most plausible sounding answer that they can.

The fundamental difference to human intelligence. There is no mental conversation that goes on in those neural networks. That is not the way that technology works. There is no mind there. There is no reasoning going on at all. Those neural networks are just trying to make their best guess and it is a glorified version of your autocomplete. Ultimately, there’s really no more intelligence there thah in your autocomplete, in your smartphone. The difference is sacle, data, and computer power.

Okay, I say, if you really want an example, by the way, you can find this video, it is easy, you can guess at the search terms to find tht – and I say I think this is really important just to understand the difference between human intelligence and machine intelligence.

A Tesla driving behind a truck carrying traffic lights gets confused and thinks it’s on an infinite roadway of traffic lights. Another example of how machine learning is just pattern recognition and not intelligence in any meaningful sense of the word. https://t.co/bM8PwsOTgO

— Dare Obasanjo🐀 (@Carnage4Life) June 4, 2021

So, this technology, then, gets everybody excited. First it gets AI researchers like myself excited in June 2020 and we can see that something new is happening. This is a new era of artificial intelligence. We’ve seen that step change and we’ve seen that this AI is capable of things that we didn’t train it for, which is weird and wonderful and completely unprecedented. And now, questions which were a few years ago were questions for philosophers, become practical questions for us. We can actually try the technology out. How does it do with these things that philosophers have been talking about for decades?

General Artificial Intelligence

(Also known as Strong Artificial Intelligence in academic and philosophical circles) There are none in 2025

The existing Artificial Intelligences, such as Chat GPT, are known as weak

One particular question starts to float to the surface and the question is:

“Is this technology the key to general artificial intelligence?”

So, what is general artificial intelligence?

Well, firstly, it’s not very well defined, but roughly speaking, what general artificial intelligence is, is the following:

In previous generations of AI systems, what we’ve seen is AI programmes that just do one task: play a game of chess, drive my car, drive my Tesla, identify abnormalities on x-ray scans. They might do it very, very well, but they only do one thing. The idea of general AI is that it’s AI which is truly general purpose. It just doesn’t do one thing in the same way that you don’t do one thing in the same way that you don’t do one thing. You can do an infinite number of things, a huge range of different tasks and the dream of general AI is that we have one AI system which is general in the same way that you and I are. That’s the dream of general AI. Now, I emphasise until – really until June 2020 this felt like a long, long way in the future and it wasn’t really very mainstream or taken very seriously. I didn’t take it very seriously, I have to tell you. But now, we have a general purpose AI technology GPT 3 and ChatGPT. Now it’s not general artificial intelligence on its own, but is it enough? OK, is this enough? Is this smart enough to actually get us there? Or, to put it another way: is this the missing ingredient that we need to get us to artificial general intelligence?

Okay, so. What might general AI look like? Well, I’ve identified here some different versions of general AI, according to how sophisticated they are. Now, the most sophisticated version of general AI would be an AI which is as fully capable as a human being, that is, anything that you could do, the machine could do as well. Now, crucially, that doesn’t just mean having a conversation with somebody. It means being able to load up a dishwasher. And a colleague recently made the comment that the first company that can make technology which will be able to reliably load up a dishwasher and safely load up a dishwasher is going to be a $1 trillion company. I think he’s absolutely right and he also said: “And it’s not going to happen any time soon” – and he’s also right with that.

So, we’ve got this weird dichotomy that we’ve got ChatGPT and Cohere which are incredibly rich and powerful tools, but at the same time, they can’t load a dishwasher.

So, we’re some way, I think, from having this version of general AI, the idea of having one machine that can really do anything that a human being could do – a machine which could do a joke, read a book and answer questions about it, the technology can read books and answer questions. Noq that could tell a joke, that could cook for us an omelette, that could tidy our house, that could ride a bicycle and so on, that could write a sonnet. All of those things that human beings could do. If we succeed with full general intelligence, then we would have succeeded with this version one.

Now, I say, for the reasons that I’ve already explained, I don’t think this is imminent – that version of general AI. Because robotic AI – AI that exists in the real world and has to do tasks in the real world and manipulate objects in the real world – robotic AI is much, much harder. It is nowhere near as advanced as Chat GPT and Cohere. And that’s not a slur on my colleagues that do robotics research, it’s just because the real world is really, really, really tough.

So, I don’t think that we’re anywhere close to having machines that can do anything that a human being could dBut what about the second version? The second version of general intelligence says “Well, forget about the real world. How about just tasks which require cognitive abilities, reasoning, the ability to look at a picture and answer questions about it, the ability to listen to something and answer questions about it and interpret that? ” Anything which involves those kinds of tasks. Well, I think we are much closer. We’re not there yet, but we’re much closer than we were five years ago. Now, I noticed actually just before I came in today, I noticed that Google/Deepmind have announced their latest large language model technology and I think it’s called Gemini and, at first glance, it looks like it’s very, very impressive. I couldn’t help but think it’s no accident that they announced that just before my lecture. I can’t help thinking that there’s a little bit of an attempt to upstage my lecture going on there, but, anyway, we won’t let them get away with that. But it looks very impressive. And the crucial thing here is what AI people call “multi-modal”. And what multimodal means is it doesn’t just deal with text, it can deal with text and images – potentially with sounds, as well. and each of those is a different modality of communication and where this technology is going, clearly, multimodal is going to be the next big thing. And Gemini – as I say, I haven’t looked at it closely, but it looks like it’s on that track.

OK, the next version of general intelligence is intelligence that can do any language-based task that a human being could do. So, anything that you can communicate in language – in ordinary written text – an AI system that could do that. Now, we aren’t there yet and we know we’re not there yet because our Chat GPT and cohere get things wrong all the time but you can see that we’re not far off from that. Intuitively, it doesn’t look like we’re that far off from that.

The final version – and I think this is imminent – this is going to happen in the near future is what I’ll call augmented large language models. And that means you take GPT3 or ChatGPT and you just add lots of subroutines to stop it. So, if it has to do a specialised task, it just calls a specialist solver in order to be able to do that task. And this is not, from an AI perspective, a terribly elegant version of artificial intelligence but, nevertheless, I think a very useful version of artificial intelligence.

Now, here, these four varieties from the most ambitious down to the least ambitious, still represents a huge spectrum of AI capabilities – and I have the sense that the goalposts in general AI have been changed a bit. I think when generally it was first discussed, what people were talking about was the first version, now when they talk about it, I really think they’re talking about the fourth version, but the fourth version I think plausibly is imminent in the next couple of years. And that just means much more capable, large language models that get things wrong, a lot less that are capable of doing specialised tasks but not by using the transformer architecture, just by calling on some specialised software.

So, I don’t think the transformer architecture itself is the key to general intelligence. In particular, it doesn’t help us with the robotics problems that I mentioned earlier on and if we look here at this picture, this picture illustrates some of the dimensions of human intelligence – and it’s far from complete. This is me just thinking for half an hour about some of the dimensions of human intelligence.

Dimensions of Full General Intelligence

The things in blue, roughly speaking, a mental capabilty – stuff you do in your head – the things ikn red are things you do in the physical world So, in red on the right hand side, for exmple, is mobility – the ability to move around some environment and, associated with that, navigation. Manual desterity and manipulation – doing complex fiddly things with your hands. Robot hands are nowhere near at the level of a human carpenter or plumber, for exmple, nolwhere near. So, we’re a long way out from having that understanding. Oh, and doing hand-eye coordination, relatedly, understanding what you’re seeing and understanding what you’re hearing, we’ve made some progress on. But a lot of these tasks we’ve made a no progress on. And then, on tleft hand side, the blue stuff is stuf that goes on in your head. Things like logical reasoning and planning and so on.

So, what is the state of the art now? It looks something like this:

The red cross means “no, we don’t have it in large language models”. We are not there. There are fundamental problems. The question marks are, well, maybe we might have a bit of it, but we don’t have the whole answer. And the green “Y” are, yeah, I think we’re there. Well, the one that we’ve really nailed is what’s called natural language processing, and that’s the ability to understand and create ordinary human text. That’s what large language models were designed to do – to interact in ordinary human text, that’s what they are best at. But actually, the whole range of stuff – the other stuff here – we’re not there at all. By the way, I did notice that Gemini claimed to have been capable of planning and mathematical reasoning, so I look forward to seeing how good their technology is. But my point is we still seem to be some way from full general intelligence.

The last few minutes, I want to talk about something else and I want to talk abou machine consciousness and the very first thing to say about machine consciousness is why on earth would we care about it? I am not remotely interested in building machines that are conscious, I know very, very few artificial intelligence researchers that are, but nevertheless, it’s an interesting question and in particular, it’s a question which came to the fore because of this individual, this chap, ]blake Lemoine, in June 2022 , he was a Google engineer and he was working with a Google large language model, I think it was called LAMDA, and he went public on Twitter and I think on his blob with an extraordinary claim. and he said, “The system I’m working on is sentient ” and here is a quote of the conversation that the system came up with. “I’m aware of my existence and I feel happy or sad at times”. and it said, “I’m afraid of being turned off”. And Lemoine concluded that the programme was sentient – which is a very, very big claim indeed. and he made global headlines and I received through the Turing tem – we got a lot of press enquiries asking us, “is it true that machines are now sentient?” He was wrong on so many levels, I don’t even know where to begin to describe how wrong he was.

The discussion which follows, is the meat of this whole lecture and I split it separately in a post, following Prof. Michael Wooldridge and expanding it with my personal take at points where it seemed to me adequate and and you can see it at:

Artificial Intelligence vs Consciousness

Building Blocks Big Picture

The building blocks of artificial intelligence (AI) encompass a variety of concepts, techniques, and components that contribute to the development of intelligent systems. Here are the key building blocks:

1. Data: Data is fundamental to AI. It serves as the foundation for training models, and the quality and quantity of data directly affect the performance of AI systems. Data can be structured (like databases) or unstructured (like text, images, and videos).
2. Algorithms: Algorithms are sets of rules or procedures that AI systems use to process data and make decisions. Common algorithms include supervised learning, unsupervised learning, reinforcement learning, and deep learning.
3. Machine Learning: A subset of AI, machine learning involves training models on data to enable them to learn patterns and make predictions or decisions without being explicitly programmed. Techniques include neural networks, decision trees, support vector machines, and more.
4. Deep Learning: A specialized area of machine learning that uses artificial neural networks with many layers (deep networks) to model complex patterns in large datasets. Deep learning has been particularly successful in tasks like image and speech recognition.
5. Neural Networks: These are computational models inspired by the human brain, consisting of interconnected nodes (neurons) that process information. Different architectures, such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and recurrent neural networks (RNNs), are used for specific tasks.
6. Natural Language Processing (NLP): This branch of AI focuses on the interaction between computers and human language, enabling machines to understand, interpret, and generate human language. Techniques include tokenization, sentiment analysis, and language modeling.
7. Computer Vision: This field involves enabling machines to interpret and understand visual information from the world. It includes image processing, object detection, image classification, and video analysis.
8. Reinforcement Learning: A type of machine learning where agents learn to make decisions by taking actions in an environment to maximize cumulative rewards. It is often used in robotics, gaming, and autonomous systems.
9. Knowledge Representation and Reasoning: This area focuses on how to represent information about the world in a form that a computer can utilize to solve complex problems. It includes ontologies, semantic networks, and logic-based representations.
10. Ethics and Bias: As AI systems become more prevalent, understanding the ethical implications and addressing biases in AI models is crucial. This involves ensuring fairness, accountability, transparency, and the responsible use of AI.
11. Hardware and Infrastructure: The computational resources required to run AI algorithms, including CPUs, GPUs, and specialized hardware like TPUs (Tensor Processing Units), are essential for training and deploying AI models effectively.
12. Frameworks and Tools: Various software frameworks and libraries (like TensorFlow, PyTorch, and scikit-learn) provide tools for building and training AI models, making it easier for developers to implement complex algorithms.

These building blocks collectively contribute to the development of AI systems capable of performing a wide range of tasks, from simple automation to complex decision-making and problem-solving.

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